Laying the Foundations

I have spent the past week learning about the creation of the National Park Service (NPS) and the National Parks Conservation Association (NPCA). I have also been learning a lot about the structure of the NPS, how it allocates its funds, where most of the money goes, and as a result, what problems arise due to the current structure although this will come in a future post. Granted this is not as exciting as getting to talk about some of my favorite parks and show pretty pictures from my hikes, but it is quite important to understand the inner workings of the NPS to better understand what changes need to be made in order to create a sound, stable platform from which they can operate and function now and the future.
In 1864 congress ceded the Yosemite Valley to the state of California to be protected “inalienable for all time.” (Miles, 4) This action was spurred by George Catlin who fell in love with the West and recognized that as more settlers like him came into this new area the entire scene would change. While most settlers saw the West as a land of endless resources and opportunities, Catin saw it as a magnificent landscape that needed protection if it was to endure. This idea ultimately became the basis for the creation of the first national park. Yellowstone National Park was created in 1872 by Ulysses S. Grant. Unlike Yosemite, Yellowstone was to be administered by the federal government rather than by a state. Right away administration became a problem for the new park and ultimately congress appointed the U.S. Army as its protector. Yellowstone did not even have legislation protecting wildlife until 1894, more than ten years after it became a park. The stage was set for a myriad of problems that would plague the parks then and now: “incompetent and political concessions (private entrepreneurs providing services to visitors for a fee); threats of inappropriate development; boundaries inadequate to protect resources, especially wildlife; and an inadequate budget to the job mandated by the act creating the park.” (Miles, 6) A short time later Sequoia, Mount Rainier, and Crater Lake National Parks were founded by congress, however there were no funds to manage or protect them and once again the military moved in to do what they could. It was clear that the designation of boundaries was not enough and as John Muir and the Sierra Club were quickly finding out, there were lots of opportunities and work for citizens interested in supporting the national parks. These parks were all clearly appropriate examples of magnificent national parks, but in the early 1900’s the creation of three new national parks raised issues with many park advocates. The creation of Wind Cave, Sullys Hill and Platt became the butt of jokes in congress. For example, Platt National Park was created to honor a deceased senator from Connecticut and its main feature was a group of springs, however these springs were polluted by runoff from an inadequate sewage system in a nearby town. It was becoming evident that there was a need for the establishment of some sort of criteria for what should or shouldn’t be a national park as well as the development of a systemic, comprehensive management plan to protect them.

After the civil war Americans were becoming more concerned about the destruction and degradation of natural beauty and wildlife and the conservation movement began. The conservation movement divided into two branches early on. The conservation branch, led by Gifford Pinchot, felt that resources should be used, consumed and sometimes depleted. The preservation branch, led by John Muir, felt that resources should be protected and not depleted and that some resources should simply be left alone and in the case of the national parks they should be preserved. Many organizations, such as the Sierra Club, the National Audubon Society, the Mountaineers and the American Civic Association were founded with conservation and resource protection in mind. The United States Forest Service was established in 1906 under the leadership of Pinchot who was a true conservationist at heart. J. Horace McFarland, a leader of the American Civic Association and a preservationist, envisioned a similar bureau that would unify the management of the national parks. McFarland allied himself with Muir to oppose San Francisco’s proposal to build a dam that would flood the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite and as a result became a major advocate of the national parks. The battle over Hetch Hetchy and the conflicting views of preservation and conservation illustrated the need for a centralized administrative system for the national parks. In the early 1900’s McFarland and the American Civic Association along with his alliances with the Sierra Club, the Appalachian Mountain Club, Society for the Preservation of National Parks, and John Muir pushed for a national park bureau or service.
In 1910 Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger asked McFarland to confer with him about the creation of a national park bureau. Ballinger’s successors Walter Fisher and Franklin Lane continued to support Ballinger’s proposal. Amongst severe opposition McFarland and his allies pursued their campaign and in 1912 President Taft urged congress to create such a bureau. Pinchot and the Forest Service adamantly opposed such a bureau believing that the Forest Service should have control over the national parks and their resources. While McFarland and his allies set about pushing the creation of the National Park Service, the Department of the Interior was trying to work on some sort of coordination for the parks. Secretary of the Interior, Franklin Lane, brought Adolph Miller on board as an assistant and gave him the responsibility of unifying the administration of the parks. Miller recruited Horace Albright as his assistant and was soon introduced to Steven Mather. Together with McFarland and his allies they pushed for the signing of the National Parks Service Act and on August 25, 1916 against powerful opposition President Wilson signed the National Park Service Act and the National Park Service was created.

The creation of the National Parks Service was a monumental accomplishment, yet there was still more work to be done. In 1917 Mather decided to hold a national conference aimed at getting congress to appropriate support for the development of the parks. Mather underwent a great deal of stress advocating for the parks and during this conference had a nervous breakdown. Many felt that Robert Sterling Yard was the logical choice for Mather’s replacement but the young ambitious Albright would take Mather’s place until he could return. Albright was named “acting director” of the NPS until Mather’s return and Yard was appointed as chief of the Educational Division even though there was no official appropriation for that division. Yard’s salary was paid out of Mather’s own pocket! Yard saw the need to increase interest in education of the national parks and promoted them through articles and other publications. What Yard found was little interest in public education of the parks which ultimately led him to create an organization outside of the government. He gained support for his idea from scientist and secretary of the Smithsonian Charles Walcott as well as Henry Macfarland and together they began the formation of the National Parks Educational Committee. In the next two years they would gain support and in 1919 the committee had 72 members. They felt they could create a partnership with the NPS by letting the NPS develop and administer the parks while they provided public education of the parks. In 1919 the Educational Committee proposed their idea of the creation of the National Parks Association with Mather. Mather wholeheartedly agreed that such an organization would benefit the NPS and urged its creation at once and pledged $5000 to help it get running. Yard and Macfarland worked tirelessly to create the National Parks Association and on April 9, 1919 scheduled a meeting in Washington DC to discuss its creation. The response was positive and on May 19, 1919 the National Parks Association was created.

What was the responsibility of this new organization? Yard, Mather, Macfarland and many others knew that the NPS needed more funding and thought that their priorities might not be entirely correct. The NPA created a document that set the agenda and objectives for the organization which is prefaced with this:

As Congress conceives the National Parks only as concrete properties and appropriates only for their physical protection, improvement and maintenance, there is no governmental provision for their study from any other point of view, or for their interpretation, or for preparing the public mind for their higher enjoyment. To accomplish these objects is the fundamental purpose of the National Parks Association. (Miles 24, 25)

The National Parks Association also created four objectives. The first was “To interpret and popularize natural science by using the conspicuous scenery and the plant and animal exhibits of the national parks, now prominent in the public eye, for examples.” The second stated “To help the development of the national parks into a complete and rational system.” The third objective was to “thoroughly study the National Parks and make past as well as future results available for public use.” The final objective was “To encourage travel in every practicable way.” The NPA wanted to attract people to the parks, yet they also realized the need for education and the sharing of information as well as resource protection. They saw themselves as the defenders of the National Parks and realized that public education is essential to public support.
I have long been a fan of the National Parks Conservation Association (they added the word conservation in the 70’s when the environmental movement emerged), but until recently I never knew their origin. I have also known that the NPS and the NPCA frequently butt heads on issues regarding the parks. Now I feel I have a much clearer vision of why the NPCA was created in the first place and I am glad they are still there advocating for my favorite places. There is still much to be done but I am hopeful that it can and will happen. I feel that their mission to educate the public about our national parks is vital to their public support. Please vote for increased funding for our national parks and support them by visiting them taking only pictures and leaving only footprints on the trails of course.


Works Cited
Miles, John C. Guardians of the parks a history of the National Parks and Conservation Association. Washington, D.C: Taylor & Francis in cooperation with National Parks and Conservations Association, 1995. Print.